Dyslexia
Definition of Dyslexia
The student who struggles with reading and spelling often puzzles teachers and parents. The student displays the ability to learn in the absence of print and receives the same classroom instruction that benefits most children; however, the student continues to struggle with some or all of the many facets of reading and spelling. This student may be a student with dyslexia.
Texas Education Code (TEC) §38.003 defines dyslexia and related disorders in the following way:
“Dyslexia” means a disorder of constitutional origin manifested by difficulty in learning to read, write, or spell, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity.
“Related disorders” include disorders similar to or related to dyslexia, such as developmental
auditory imperception, dysphasia, specific developmental dyslexia, developmental dysgraphia, and developmental spelling disability.
TEC §38.003(d)(1)-(2) (1995)
http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/ED/htm/ED.38.htm#38.003
The International Dyslexia Association defines “dyslexia” in the following way:
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of
effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
Adopted by the International Dyslexia Association Board of Directors,
November 12, 2002
Instructional Components
Characteristics
Students identified as having dyslexia typically experience primary difficulties in phonological awareness, including phonemic awareness and manipulation, single-word reading, reading fluency, and spelling.
Consequences may include difficulties in reading comprehension and/or written expression. These difficulties in phonological awareness are unexpected for the student’s age and educational level and are
not primarily the result of language difference factors. Additionally, there is often a family history of similar difficulties.
not primarily the result of language difference factors. Additionally, there is often a family history of similar difficulties.
The following are the primary reading/spelling characteristics of dyslexia:
• Difficulty reading words in isolation
• Difficulty accurately decoding unfamiliar words
• Difficulty with oral reading (slow, inaccurate, or labored without prosody)
• Difficulty spelling
• Difficulty reading words in isolation
• Difficulty accurately decoding unfamiliar words
• Difficulty with oral reading (slow, inaccurate, or labored without prosody)
• Difficulty spelling
It is important to note that individuals demonstrate differences in degree of impairment and may not exhibit
all the characteristics listed above.
all the characteristics listed above.
The reading/spelling characteristics are most often associated with the following:
• Segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds into words (phonemic awareness)
• Learning the names of letters and their associated sounds
• Holding information about sounds and words in memory ( phonological memory)
• Rapidly recalling the names of familiar objects, colors, or letters of the alphabet (rapidnaming)
• Segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds into words (phonemic awareness)
• Learning the names of letters and their associated sounds
• Holding information about sounds and words in memory ( phonological memory)
• Rapidly recalling the names of familiar objects, colors, or letters of the alphabet (rapidnaming)
Consequences of dyslexia may include the following:
• Variable difficulty with aspects of reading comprehension
• Variable difficulty with aspects of written language
• Limited vocabulary growth due to reduced reading experiences
Common Risk Factors Associated with Dyslexia
If the following behaviors are unexpected for an individual’s age, educational level, or cognitive abilities, they may be risk factors associated with dyslexia. A student with dyslexia usually exhibits several of these behaviors that persist over time and interfere with his/her learning. A family history of dyslexia may be present; in fact, recent studies reveal that the whole spectrum of reading disabilities is strongly determined by genetic predispositions (inherited aptitudes) (Olson, Keenan, Byrne, & Samuelsson, 2014).
The following characteristics identify risk factors associated with dyslexia at different stages or grade levels.
Preschool
• Delay in learning to talk
• Difficulty with rhyming
• Difficulty pronouncing words (e.g., “pusgetti” for “spaghetti,” “mawn lower” for “lawnmower”)
• Poor auditory memory for nursery rhymes and chants
• Difficulty adding new vocabulary words
• Inability to recall the right word (word retrieval)
• Trouble learning and naming letters and numbers and remembering the letters in his/ her name
• Aversion to print (e.g., doesn’t enjoy following along if a book is read aloud)
Preschool
• Delay in learning to talk
• Difficulty with rhyming
• Difficulty pronouncing words (e.g., “pusgetti” for “spaghetti,” “mawn lower” for “lawnmower”)
• Poor auditory memory for nursery rhymes and chants
• Difficulty adding new vocabulary words
• Inability to recall the right word (word retrieval)
• Trouble learning and naming letters and numbers and remembering the letters in his/ her name
• Aversion to print (e.g., doesn’t enjoy following along if a book is read aloud)
Kindergarten and First Grade
• Difficulty breaking words into smaller parts, or syllables (e.g., “baseball” can be pulled apart into
“base” “ball” or “napkin” can be pulled apart into “nap” “kin”)
• Difficulty identifying and manipulating sounds in syllables (e.g., “man” sounded out as /m/ /ă//n/)
• Difficulty remembering the names of letters and recalling their corresponding sounds
• Difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation)
• Difficulty spelling words the way they sound (phonetically) or remembering letter sequences in very
common words seen often in print (e.g., “sed” for “said”)
• Difficulty breaking words into smaller parts, or syllables (e.g., “baseball” can be pulled apart into
“base” “ball” or “napkin” can be pulled apart into “nap” “kin”)
• Difficulty identifying and manipulating sounds in syllables (e.g., “man” sounded out as /m/ /ă//n/)
• Difficulty remembering the names of letters and recalling their corresponding sounds
• Difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation)
• Difficulty spelling words the way they sound (phonetically) or remembering letter sequences in very
common words seen often in print (e.g., “sed” for “said”)
Second Grade and Third Grade
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
• Difficulty recognizing common sight words (e.g., “to,” “said,” “been”)
• Difficulty decoding single words
• Difficulty recalling the correct sounds for letters and letter patterns in reading
• Difficulty connecting speech sounds with appropriate letter or letter combinations and omitting
letters in words for spelling (e.g., “after” spelled “eftr”)
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
• Reliance on picture clues, story theme, or guessing at words
• Difficulty with written expressions
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
• Difficulty recognizing common sight words (e.g., “to,” “said,” “been”)
• Difficulty decoding single words
• Difficulty recalling the correct sounds for letters and letter patterns in reading
• Difficulty connecting speech sounds with appropriate letter or letter combinations and omitting
letters in words for spelling (e.g., “after” spelled “eftr”)
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
• Reliance on picture clues, story theme, or guessing at words
• Difficulty with written expressions
Fourth Grade through Sixth Grade
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic, along with the following:
• Difficulty reading aloud (e.g., fear of reading aloud in front of classmates)
• Avoidance of reading (particularly for pleasure)
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
• Acquisition of less vocabulary due to reduced independent reading
• Use of less complicated words in writing that are easier to spell than more appropriate words (e.g.,
“big” instead of “enormous”)
• Reliance on listening rather than reading for comprehension
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic, along with the following:
• Difficulty reading aloud (e.g., fear of reading aloud in front of classmates)
• Avoidance of reading (particularly for pleasure)
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading is slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
• Acquisition of less vocabulary due to reduced independent reading
• Use of less complicated words in writing that are easier to spell than more appropriate words (e.g.,
“big” instead of “enormous”)
• Reliance on listening rather than reading for comprehension
Middle School and High School
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic, along with the following:
• Difficulty with the volume of reading and written work
• Frustration with the amount of time required and energy expended for reading
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., reading isslow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
• Difficulty with written assignments
• Tendency to avoid reading (particularly for pleasure)
• Difficulty learning a foreign language
Postsecondary
Some students will not be identified as having dyslexia prior to entering college. The early years of reading difficulties evolve into slow, labored reading fluency. Many students will experience extreme frustration and fatigue due to the increasing demands of reading as the result of dyslexia. In making a diagnosis for dyslexia, a student’s reading history, familial/genetic predisposition, and assessment history are critical. Many of the previously described behaviors may remain problematic along with the following:
• Difficulty pronouncing names of people and places or parts of words
• Difficulty remembering names of people and places
• Difficulty with word retrieval
• Difficulty with spoken vocabulary
• Difficulty completing the reading demands for multiple course requirements
• Difficulty with note taking
• Difficulty with written production
• Difficulty remembering sequences (e.g., mathematical and/or scientific formulas)
Some students will not be identified as having dyslexia prior to entering college. The early years of reading difficulties evolve into slow, labored reading fluency. Many students will experience extreme frustration and fatigue due to the increasing demands of reading as the result of dyslexia. In making a diagnosis for dyslexia, a student’s reading history, familial/genetic predisposition, and assessment history are critical. Many of the previously described behaviors may remain problematic along with the following:
• Difficulty pronouncing names of people and places or parts of words
• Difficulty remembering names of people and places
• Difficulty with word retrieval
• Difficulty with spoken vocabulary
• Difficulty completing the reading demands for multiple course requirements
• Difficulty with note taking
• Difficulty with written production
• Difficulty remembering sequences (e.g., mathematical and/or scientific formulas)
Appendix H, Students with Disabilities Preparing for Postsecondary Education: Know Your Rights and
Responsibilities have been included for additional information.
Responsibilities have been included for additional information.
Since dyslexia is a neurobiological, language-based disability that persists over time and interferes with an
individual’s learning, it is critical that identification and intervention occur as early as possible.
individual’s learning, it is critical that identification and intervention occur as early as possible.
Sources for Characteristics and Consequences of Dyslexia
Branum-Martin, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Stuebing, K. K. (2013). Classification and identification of reading and
math disabilities: The special case of comorbidity. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 906–915.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007). Learning disabilities: From identification to
intervention. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
The International Dyslexia Association (2018). Knowledge and practice standards for teachers of reading,
(2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://app.box.com/s/21gdk2k1p3bnagdfz1xy0v98j5ytl1w.
Moats, L. C., & Dakin, K. E. (2008). Basic facts about dyslexia and other reading problems. Baltimore, MD:
The International Dyslexia Association.
Branum-Martin, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Stuebing, K. K. (2013). Classification and identification of reading and
math disabilities: The special case of comorbidity. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 906–915.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007). Learning disabilities: From identification to
intervention. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
The International Dyslexia Association (2018). Knowledge and practice standards for teachers of reading,
(2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://app.box.com/s/21gdk2k1p3bnagdfz1xy0v98j5ytl1w.
Moats, L. C., & Dakin, K. E. (2008). Basic facts about dyslexia and other reading problems. Baltimore, MD:
The International Dyslexia Association.
Accommodations
Listed below are possible accommodations for the §504, or Admission, Review, Dismissal (ARD) Committee of Knowledgeable Persons to consider for a student with dyslexia. This is not an exclusive list.
Textbooks and Curriculum
Books/Reading
- Provide audiotapes/CDs of textbooks and have student follow the text while listening
- Provide summaries of chapters
- Use marker or highlighting tape to highlight important textbook sections
- Assign peer reading buddies
- Use colored transparency or overlay
- Review vocabulary prior to reading
- Provide preview questions
- Use videos/filmstrips related to the readings
- Provide a one-page summary and/or a review of important facts
- Do not require students to read aloud
- Talk through the material one-to-one after reading assignments
Curriculum
- Shorten assignments to focus on mastery of key concepts
- Shorten spelling tests to focus on mastering the most functional words
- Substitute alternatives for written assignments (posters, oral/taped or video presentations, projects, collages, etc.)
Classroom Environment
- Provide a computer for written work
- Seat student close to teacher in order to monitor understanding
- Provide quiet during intense learning times
Instruction and Assignments
Directions
- Give directions in small steps and with as few words as possible
- Break complex directions into small steps—arrange in a vertical list format
- Read written directions to students, then model/demonstrate
- Accompany oral directions with visual clues
- Use both oral and written directions
- Ask student to repeat; check for understanding
Writing
- Use worksheets that require minimal writing
- Provide a “designated note taker;” photocopy another student’s or teacher’s notes
- Provide a print outline with videotapes and filmstrips
- Allow student to use a keyboard when appropriate
- Allow student to respond orally
- Grade only for content not spelling or handwriting
- Have student focus on a single aspect of a writing assignment (elaboration, voice, etc.)
- Allow student to dictate answer to essay questions
- Reduce copying tasks
- Reduce written work
Math
- Allow student to use a calculator without penalty
- Use visuals and concrete examples
- Use grid paper to help correctly line up math problems
- Present information in small increments and at a slower pace
- Take time to reteach if student is struggling to understand
- Read story problems aloud
- Break problems into smaller steps
Grading
- Provide opportunity to test orally
- Allow student to type responses
- Read test to student
- Evaluate oral performances more than written
- Avoid penalizing for spelling errors, reversals, etc.
Testing
- Go over directions orally
- Permit as much time as needed to complete tests; avoid timed testing
- Read test materials and allow oral responses
- Separate content from mechanics/conventions grade
- Provide typed test materials, not tests written in cursive
- Allow student to respond on tape, with a typewriter, or by dictating answers to a tutor for assessment
- Allow tests to be taken in a room with few distractions
Homework
- Reduce reading assignments; keeping concepts that have been taught
- Accept work dictated by student to a parent/tutor
- Limit amount of time to spend on homework; have parents verify time spent on assignments
Talking about dyslexia…
"Never let dyslexia be an excuse for not achieving success. Chart your course and work to make your dreams a reality. Once you do that, there is nothing to ever hinder you."
— Carolyn McCarthy, Former member of U.S. House of Representatives